Environmental Having a baby can inspire an odd mixture of exhilaration and anxiety: the joy of seeing that first smile, together with the dread of months, or years, of interrupted sleep. Parents-to-be concerned about the environment can add to their list of anxieties the considerable burden that their baby's digestive system will have on the earth: newborns need to be changed every two or three hours. Later that schedule will ease up, but you can count on changing between 5,000 and 8,000 diapers per child [Jones 2000], depending on when they are toilet-trained. Stuffing the Landfills Before the 1960s, disposable diapers weren't an option for parents; they hadn't yet been offered for sale. But a lot has changed in 40 years. Today, 95% of families use disposables, so most of those 5,000 to 8,000 diapers per child are one-time use, resource-intensive packages containing wood pulp, plastics, and superabsorbent gels to soak up all the moisture. They get sent to municipal landfills at the rate of 3.5 million tons per year, accounting for 1.4% of all municipal solid waste generation - and that figure does not even include the weight of the urine and feces contained in the diapers. According to the London-based Women's Environmental Network, disposable diapers alone will make up about half the garbage by volume for an average family with one baby. As their throwaway convenience made disposable diapers more and more popular, environmentalists concerned about solid waste, along with the cloth diaper industry, tried to increase awareness about problems with disposables. By the late 1980s, persistent questions about these environmental costs had so rankled the manufacturers of disposables that Procter and Gamble, whose Pamper's product line is worth $4 billion every year, commissioned a study on the environmental impacts of diapers. The study asserted that disposable diapers are actually less resource-intensive than cloth diapers, due to the water, energy and detergent required to launder them. Disposables also require water in their manufacture, but in another analysis it was shown that cumulative water use was greater for both commercial diaper services and home-laundered cloth diapers (home-laundering used slightly less water) [LeVan 1995]. Subsequent studies by environmental groups and the cloth diaper industry showed the opposite: cloth diapers used less resources overall. There was also conflict about claims from the disposable diaper industry that their products were compostable. Environmentalists and the cloth diaper industry countered that, while such claims might be true of a diaper left out in an open field where sunlight and rain could reach it, diapers in landfills (where almost all disposables end up) aren't exposed to the elements, and therefore don't turn into soil; most areas do not have facilities for composting diapers. The relative amounts of resources used in different diaper systems have been debated, even within the environmental movement, ever since. Because resource-consumption assessments are based on so many assumptions, it is possible that we will never know exactly how disposables stack up against cloth diapers. Some environmental groups, such as the Sierra Club, say "it's a wash." But just because we don't have definitive answers doesn't mean parents should necessarily use disposables. There are several other considerations, in addition to resource-use questions, to take into account when choosing your diaper products. Dioxin Most disposable diapers are bleached, and as a result their manufacture contributes to the global production of dioxin, a highly toxic byproduct of pulp and paper bleaching. Dioxin, a persistent organic pollutant, accumulates in the environment and is not readily broken down. It can cause cancer as well as other health problems, and is found in meat, fish, dairy, and in human breast milk [see factsheet on dioxin at www.greenpeace.org]. Wood 250,000 trees are used every year to make the disposable diapers for American babies, filling them with fibers called cellulose. Cellulose, made from pine trees, draws the liquid into the center of the diaper and surface tension holds it there. This virgin pulp goes straight from your baby's bottom into the landfills. Alternative disposable brands have attempted to use responsibly gathered pulp by having their products certified. However, those manufacturers have reportedly had difficulty finding wood pulp that is both certified as coming from well-managed forests by the most reliable certification program, the Forest Stewardship Council, and certified chlorine-free. As a result, they’ve had to opt for less-reliable certifications from organizations such as the Sustainable Forestry Initiative, an industry-sponsored program that has received criticism for its lax standards. Potential for groundwater contamination Although landfills are not constructed to handle raw sewage, the practice of bagging up disposable diapers without first flushing the fecal material contained in them turns landfills into default sewage treatment plants. Millions of tons of untreated sewage goes each year to the landfill from disposable diapers, an unsanitary practice that raises the potential of groundwater contamination. Modern landfills are constructed to contain leaching water, so the possibility is remote. But fecal material, if it were to escape a landfill's fortifications, through leaks or via insects and other pests, is an excellent medium for transmitting parasites, viruses and bacteria. Cotton and Pesticides According to the Pesticide Action Network, cotton production accounts for more than 10% of the world's pesticides, and is the most insecticide-intensive crop in the world. The use of cloth diapers made from conventionally grown cotton, then, contributes to global pesticide use in a way that use of disposable diapers does not. But the amount of material required to set up a home cloth diapering system is not large: If you use cloth diapers, you will need about three to four dozen diapers, which you can use the whole time your baby is little and then reuse for the next baby, or sell. (Diaper covers, a standard part of a cloth diapering system, may also be made from cotton, but these can be found in wool and synthetic fabrics as well.) Personal Health Superabsorbers Disposable diapers have undergone rapid engineering changes since they were first invented, allowing manufacturers to reduce their bulk while increasing their absorptive capacity. The key to this streamlining has been sodium polyacrylate crystals, also called "super absorbent polymer" or "SAP." These crystals can absorb up to eight hundred times their weight in water (though the chemistry of urine reduces this considerably), turning into gel when wet. The same material used to be found in tampons, until it was linked to toxic shock syndrome. The use of superabsorbers in diapers is clearly different from their use in tampons; in diapers, they do not go inside the body. But diapers can break and open, especially when wet, and gel can end up on baby's skin and also, possibly, in baby's mouth. Some parents have expressed concern that this gel could cause skin irritation and infections. There has been considerable controversy over SAP ever since 1980, when an outbreak of toxic shock syndrome (TSS) among tampon users led scientists to believe that SAP-containing tampons were to blame. Due to consumer pressure, the material was removed from tampons, as were other synthetic materials designed to enhance absorption, and the incidence of TSS dropped as less-absorptive tampons were introduced. However, a 1987 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that SAP-contaning tampons and all-cotton tampons with equal absorbencies carried the same risks of TSS. Likewise, a study in rising TSS rates between 2000 and 2003 also suggests that it’s really tampon usage habits, and not materials, that are the culprit behind the disease. Whatever its ultimate health impacts, the use of SAP in diapers is clearly different from its use in tampons; diapers do not go inside the body, but they can break and open, especially when wet, and gel can end up on baby's skin and also, possibly, in baby's mouth. Because the chemical structure of SAP causes it to inevitably attract moisture, this can lead to skin irritation and gastrointestinal irritation, if ingested. The impressive technology of disposable diapers that allows them to hold so much liquid while keeping your baby's bottom dry may have a surprising result: later potty training. A constantly dry diaper may make it harder for your child to recognize when she pees. The cloth diaper industry claims that, as a result, you can expect your baby to toilet train a year earlier in cloth diapers compared to disposables. On the other hand, superabsorbers keep baby dry, even if you can't change her diaper for hours at a time - which may make for less diaper rash. The American Academy of Pediatrics states "diaper rash is less common with the use of disposable diapers." (It also notes "regardless of which type of diaper you use, diaper rash occurs less often and is less severe when you change diapers often.") Asthma in lab animals Disposable diapers can also contain a volatile mixture of plastics and fragrances, raising the possibility of respiratory irritation in babies. In one 1999 study, mice that were monitored while breathing emissions from two of three brands of disposable diapers showed reduced lung function in keeping with the symptoms of asthma. (The brands were not specified in the published study.) The mice that breathed emissions from the one brand of cloth diapers that was tested did not have these respiratory problems. The researchers also analyzed the emissions from the disposables and found "several chemicals with documented respiratory toxicity," such as ethylbenzene, styrene, and toluene. Only four un-named brands of diapers were tested, and it is unclear how they were selected. This is the only study to date that has examined respiratory effects of diaper emissions, and disposable diapers have not been linked to asthma in people, however, the researchers concluded that "diapers should be considered as one of the factors that might cause or exacerbate asthmatic conditions." Increased scrotal temperature Some research has examined whether disposable diapers, with their plastic covers, raise the temperature of babies' genitals. One study, published in 2000 in the Archives of Disease in Childhood, tried to quantify this increased temperature by monitoring temperatures inside the diapers of 48 boys over the course of two days. The study, done in Germany, found that the scrotal temperature was higher in the boys wearing disposable diapers compared to the boys wearing cloth diapers [Partsch 2000]. However, a 2002 study published in Skin Research and Technology came to different conclusions. In a series of research trials, the researchers monitored the scrotal temperatures of boys wearing various types of disposables and those wearing 100-percent cloth diapers with vinyl, wool or other waterproof covers. The researchers found scrotal temperatures were the same, regardless of diaper type. Scrotal temperatures were only lower among boys wearing cloth diapers with no cover. The researchers of the 2000 study speculated that such increased temperature could cause infertility in adults, but there is no hard evidence currently supporting this theory. However, a study published two years later in the same journal, found no association between the use of disposable diapers and testicular cancer in adults, though the authors of the study note that their results aren't definitive given that the use of disposables on the men in the study, born between 1946 and 1970, was not as prevalent during their childhoods as it now is. Tributyltin Tributyltin is a biocide used in wood treatment, marine paints, textiles, and wood pulp and paper mills. According to the EPA, it is "extremely toxic to aquatic life" and is an endocrine disruptor in marine species. In 2000, Greenpeace Germany found tributyltin in 8 brands of disposable diapers it had tested in Europe. It is unknown how these diapers came to contain the substance. According to the organization, tributyltin can harm the human immune system and disrupt hormone function, and it can be absorbed through the skin. Disposable diapers are not routinely tested for the presence of this substance, so it is unknown whether diapers continue to contain it. It is also unknown how tributyltin could affect the health of babies. The Solutions What to look for There is no easy answer to the question of which diaper to use. That will depend on your preferences as a parent and your environmental priorities. For example, because cloth diapers must be laundered, they require the use of large amounts of water, whether you wash them at home or use a diaper service. If you live in an area where water is scarce, therefore, you might want to factor water-use into your diapering decision. If you live in an area where water is plentiful, cloth diapers might make more sense to you. Cloth Diapers Some parents make their diapering decision based on cost. Cloth diapers, laundered at home, are the cheapest way to go [Schmitt 2003 p39]. There are greater up-front costs than your other diapering options, in that you have to invest in diapers and diaper covers, but these investments pay off over time, especially if you plan to have more than one baby. (Laundering at home incurs ongoing costs for electricity and water. You can cut these costs down by line-drying your diapers instead of using a clothes dryer.) The cost of using a diaper service is greater than setting up a home-laundering cloth diaper system, but still less than using disposables. Other parents base their diapering decision on necessity. Some day care centers require children to be in disposable diapers, so it can be easier for working parents to find child care if their baby is in disposables. Finally, keep in mind that many parents use both types of diapers, switching depending on their plans for the day, their travel schedules, or even the developmental stage of their child. Parents who launder cloth diapers at home have the most options. There are dozens of types of cloth diapers for sale, along with diaper covers, diaper laundering soaps, diaper pails, and a seemingly endless number of associated accessories. Some diapers are made of organic cotton, reducing dependence on pesticides. These are more expensive than conventional cotton diapers. And wool diaper covers are also available, which reduce your child's direct contact with plastics. With home laundering, you can also control the detergent used to clean the diapers, choosing a vegetable-based soap to reduce your use of non-renewable resources. If organic cotton products are too steep for your budget, consider buying used diapers as a way to avoid contributing to pesticide-intensive cotton production. According to Mothering Magazine, thrift stores and online auctions can be good sources for cloth diapers [Schmitt 2003]. Because of the popularity of disposable diapers, there are fewer and fewer diaper services in the U.S. But despite the fact that the number of diaper services have decreased in the past few decades, there still are dozens of them around the country, and there may well be one near you. The National Association of Diaper Services maintains a listing. A diaper service will deliver clean cloth diapers to your door, and pick up the dirty ones on a weekly basis. This system gives the benefits of cloth without the extra laundry. Some services provide diapers pails, a variety of diaper covers, and even a cloth diapering lesson. But commercial laundering can have its down sides, including an astounding number of rinses (and thus the use of large quantities of water) as well as detergents and other substances that could irritate your baby's skin. Currently, we aren’t aware of any "green" diaper services, so make sure to ask your local diaper service how they clean and sanitize the diapers. And keep in mind that diaper services consume fossil fuel transporting your baby’s diapers to and from the laundering facility, which you could eliminate by laundering at home. Alternative Disposable Diapers For the environmentally-concerned parent who is stuck on disposables, one option is the use of alternative disposable diapers. There are four brands of alternative disposables currently on the market: Tushies, TenderCare, Nature Boy and Girl and Seventh Generation. Tushies are bleached with hydrogen peroxide and therefore are chlorine-free. It's also the only alternative disposable that does not use SAP. Instead, they use a mix of conventional cotton and wood pulp, making it thicker than other disposables (www.tushies.com). Tendercare diapers are made by Tushies in U.S., as Tushies are. The main difference between the two brands is that Tendercarer diapers contain SAP and wood pulp, rather than cotton (www.tendercarediapers.com). Nature Boy and Girl is a Swedish brand of diapers that feature a GMO-free cornstarch, rather than plastic, cover, which makes them compostable if you have a municipal composting facility in your area. The absorbent material is a mix of SAP and wood pulp certified by the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation, which prohibits the use of chemical dyes, bleaching agents and fragrances in addition to its forest management criteria. (www.naty.se/frameseteng.htm; sold in the U.S. through www.drugstore.com) Seventh Generation's diapers are U.S.-made and totally chlorine free, except for one piece of tissue that is elemental chlorine free. They also use SAP and wood pulp. (www.seventhgeneration.com) Flushables, A Third Alternative gDiapers, a combination of cloth and disposable, consist of a conventional cotton cloth pant, nylon liner and a wood pulp/SAP pad. When baby soils the diaper, you rip open the flushable insert, dump its contents in the toilet and flush. The company had its diapers tested, and approved, by the National Sanitation Foundation, which studied the ability of the pad's contents to move through a typical North American toilet and 60 feet of additional pipe. Environmentally, the diapers eliminate the problem of landfill waste, since the disposable component is sent down the toilet, and for parents with compost heaps, wet diapers (but not those containing feces) can be composted; urine contains naturally occurring nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium nutrients that benefit soil and gardens. While flushing requires extra water, it still requires 20 percent less water than laundering, according to the company. Furthermore, the pants don't need to be washed every time a baby needs changing. Instead parents wash the nylon liner, or simply wipe it down depending on the size of the mess, so the amount of water and energy needed to launder the pants is considerably less than with cloth diapers. The product has its drawbacks. Unlike cloth diapers, gDiaper users don't have the option of purchasing organic cotton alternatives. Combating this charge, the company says that parents only need eight to ten pairs of gDiaper pants, versus 30 to 70 cloth diapers required by parents using only that method, therefore reducing the environmental burden of conventional cotton. Also, because it was important for gDiapers to keep production of the flushable insert (the bulk of their product) in the U.S., they were unable to find a totally-chlorine-free wood pulp manufacturer in the U.S., so they opted instead for elemental chlorine free pulp certified by the controversial Sustainable Forestry Initiative. While their local sourcing cuts down on the amount of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions required for shipping, elemental chlorine releases some dioxin into the environment, but not as much as with the regular chlorination process. Even so, the company is striving to remain as environmentally and socially responsible as possible. The company owners are working with the human rights group China Labour Watch to ensure that the workers at the manufacturing plant in China where the pants are made receive fair wages and proper treatment. They also received the McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry's "Cradle to Cradle" certification for the flushable insert. The certification process requires a detailed review of every component of the product and its human health and environmental impacts from manufacturing through disposal. For more information, see www.gdiapers.com. Diaper Recycling Diaper recycling and composting may someday reduce the flow of disposables into our landfills. Currently, the only diaper recycling programs in North America exist in Canada , but a six-month pilot project started in 2002 in Santa Clarita, California, tested the feasibility of recycling diapers by sanitizing the components and recycling the plastic and wood pulp. The process, ultimately, was not cost effective, and the city shut the program down a year later. However, it may become an option in the future for those parents who want to use disposables but are concerned about their resource consumption. In the meantime, if you use disposables, flush any fecal material down the toilet before throwing it away, to reduce the possibility of contaminating water supplies. What goes down the toilet goes to a sewage treatment facility, which can safely deal with potentially harmful bacteria; what goes in the garbage does not.